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Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell (1857 -
1941) was an accomplished soldier who became first came to wide public
notice as the ‘hero of the Siege of Mafeking’(1899 - 1900) during the Boer
War. He is better known as the founder of the Boy Scout movement. This
achievement and his concern with 'old values' has sometimes obscured the
innovational nature of his educational thinking. What is overlooked is
his concern with the social lives and imagination of young people, and
how he was able to build on this to develop an associational educational
form. Robert Baden-Powell placed a special value on adventure; on children
and young people working together - and taking responsibility (his 'patrol'
building on the idea of 'natural' friendship groups and 'gangs'); on developing
self-sufficiency; and on 'learning through doing' (he was deeply suspicious
of curriculum forms). In this article we examine some of the key aspects
of his approach.
Robert Baden-Powell and the early development of Scouting
In 1885 Robert Baden-Powell started collecting material for a book on army
scouting. Eventually published in 1899, because of his celebrity status,
it became an instant bestseller- selling more 100,000 copies within the
first few months. The ideas were seized upon by a number of people working
with boys and young men and Robert Baden-Powell was encouraged to write
a version for boys. He was also working on his own ideas about education.
The Boys Brigade (founded October 4, 1883 in Glasgow by William Smith [1854-1914)
was an obvious place for his work - but while there were many things for
Robert Baden-Powell to admire in their activities he was put off by the
emphasis on drill and what he saw as a lack of attention to developing
the mind and sympathy with others.
Robert Baden-Powell had become concerned about the well-being of of
the nation - and of particular young people. It has been said that the
poor physical condition of the young men attempting to join the army during
the Boer War was a central factor in his championing and fashioning of
Scouting. One report at the time (1904) claimed that of every nine who
volunteered to fight, only two were fit to do so. Diet, poor housing, and
harmful working conditions were identified as contributory factors. However,
he was equally worried about people's physical and mental well-being. Physical
'deterioration' and 'moral degeneracy' became themes in many of the talks
and speeches that Robert Baden-Powell gave - especially in the period after
the Boer War. Reflecting on his experience of the Boys' Brigade he first
thought that something could be done within that organization to move away
from an over-focus on marching and drill:
Something, I think, also [could] be done towards developing
the Boy's mind by increasing his powers of observation, and teaching him
to notice details. I believe that if some form of scout training could
be devised in the Brigade it would be very popular, and could do a great
amount of good. Preliminary training in this line might include practice
in noting and remembering details of strangers; contents of shop windows,
appearances of streets etc. The results would not only sharpen the wits
of the Boy, but would also make him quick to read character and feelings,
and thus help him to be a better sympathiser with his fellow-men. (Robert
Baden-Powell in the Boys' Brigade Gazette, 1 June 1904 - quoted
by Jeal 1989: 362)
Having looked at various different schemes - including Ernest
Thompson Seton's vision of camping and woodcraft, and explored different
educational forms, in August 1907 he conducted the famous Brownsea Island
Experimental Camp. Robert Baden-Powell wanted to test out the ideas he
had been working on for his scheme of work for ‘Boy Scouts’. He had completed
the first draft of Scouting for Boys. With the experience of the
camp validating much of his thinking, he began a long series of promotional
lectures around the country arranged with the YMCA (Reynolds 1942: 147-8).
On January 15, 1908, the first part of
Scouting for Boys was published.
Like modern day ‘bit-parts’ it appeared at fortnightly intervals (6 parts)
price at 4d each. It quickly appeared in book form (May 1). Sales were
extra-ordinary and quickly groups of young men were approaching suitable
adults to form troupes (Springhall 1977). The involvement of Arthur Pearson
(the publisher) had given the whole enterprise an unedifying commercial
edge. Robert Baden-Powell had unwisely entered into a ‘gentleman’s agreement’
with him - and had lost various rights and a large amount of money as a
result. Considerable efforts were made to set up a separate organization
and to limit the publisher’s power.
Scouting for Boys was also read and taken up by a significant
number of middle class girls on a self-organized basis (Kerr 1936: 16).
In September 1908 at Crystal Palace the first big rally was held with some
10,000 Boy Scouts as well as a number of self-organized Girls Scouts attending
(Reynolds 1942: 150). Robert Baden Powell was approached by some Girl Scouts
asking him to do something for them also. In the second edition of Scouting
for Boys he suggest a uniform for Girl Scouts - blue, khaki or grey
shirt (as with the boys) and blue skirt and knickers. However, Robert Baden-Powell
had decided to set up a separate organization and scheme. He decided ‘Scout’
was inappropriate and alighted on ‘Girl Guide’. The scheme was ‘to make
girls better mothers and guides to the next generation’. In Robert Baden-Powell's
mind though, it was to be fairly similar in structure and activity as the
boys - ‘Girls must be partners and comrades rather than dolls’ (Jeal 1989:
470). (Details of Baden-Powell's 'Scheme for "Girl Guides"' was published
in the Scout's Headquarters Gazette in Novemer 1909. It is reproduced
in full by Kerr [1932: 29-34]). With the move to Victoria, the Girl Guides
were allocated a separate office and Agnes Baden-Powell (Robert’ sister)
was asked to form a committee.
As John Springhall (1977: 64) has noted, in the decade from 1908 to
1919, 'no other influence upon British boyhood came anywhere near Baden-Powell's
movement'. He continues:
The actual timing of the appearance of the first Boy Scout
may be explained as an outcome of the post-Boer War mood of imperial decline
and social reassessment... [H]owever, the historian needs to go back further,
at least to Thomas Hughes idealization of Rugby and the 'muscular Christianity'
of the third quarter of the nineteenth century. Despite subsequent new
directions, the ideological roots of Scouting remain buried in the public
school ethos of Charterhouse in the 1870s, the methods of colonial warfare
in the 1880s and 1890s, and the intellectual climate of the 1900s.
The key words of the old Scout Law: honour, loyalty and duty were part
of the old public school tradition; and Robert Baden-Powell's stress on
the worth of activity and games (and disdain for 'effeminate' and intellectual
scholarship) could have come directly from the pages of Thomas Hughes'
Tom Brown's Schooldays (Springhall 1977: 54). When this was
combined with woodcraft and a love of the open air, a desire for class
harmony and an appreciation of what might be happening in the imaginative
life of boys then the scene was set for some serious innovation in informal
education practice.
Robert Baden-Powell and 'doing good'
One of the fascinating features of Robert Baden-Powell's scheme is the
centrality accorded to 'doing good'. As we noted above, there is a strong
link here with his own experience of public school. For some years prior
to the publication of Scouting for Boys Robert Baden-Powell in his
speeches to various youth groups and organizations had been encouraging
boys and young men to 'do good'. By 'doing good', he once wrote (in 1900),
'I mean making yourselves useful and doing small kindnesses to other people
- whether they are friends or strangers' (quoted by Jeal 1989: 363). This
concern famously became incorporated into Scout Law:
3. A scout's duty is to be useful and to help others. And
he is to his duty before anything else, even though he gives up his own
pleasure, or comfort, or safety to do it. When in difficulty to know which
of two things to do, he must ask himself, "Which is my duty?" that is,
"Which is best for other people?" - and do that one. He must Be Prepared
at any time to save life, or to help injured persons. An he must try
his best to do a good turn to somebody every day.
4. A Scout is a friend to all, and a brother to every other scout,
no matter to what social class the other belongs. Thus if a scout meets
another scout, even though a stranger to him, he must speak to him, and
help him in any way that he can, either to carry out the duty he is then
doing, or by giving him food, or, as far as possible, anything that he
may be in want of. A scout must never be a SNOB. A snob is one who looks
down upon another because he is poorer, or who is poor and resents another
because he is rich. A scout accepts the other man as he finds him, and
makes the best of him.
"Kim", the boy scout, was called by the Indians, "Little friend of all
the world", and that is the name that every scout should earn for himself.
(Robert Baden-Powell 1908: 49-50 - these became laws 4 and 5 in the
second edition of Scouting for Boys - 1909)
Recent conceptions of informal education such as that of Jeffs and Smith
(1990,
1999) have also placed a strong emphasis upon seeking to live life well,
and of looking to the well-being of others. However, such an approach (drawn
from broadly from Aristotle
and virtue ethics) clearly prioritizes the 'good' over the 'correct' -
and this is a tension that Robert Baden-Powell would have found troubling.
His conception of the good was deeply entwined with notions of duty - particularly
towards his country. The Scout Law stated:
2. A Scout is loyal to the King, and his officers, and
to his country, and to his employers. He must stick to them through thick
and thin against anyone who is their enemy, or who even talks badly of
them.
7. A Scout obey orders of his patrol leader or scout master
without question.
Even if he gets an order he does not like he must do as soldiers and
sailors do, he must carry it out all the same because it is his duty;
and after he has done it he can come and state any reasons against it:
he must carry out an order at once. That is discipline. (Robert Baden-Powell
1908: 49, 50)
For Robert Baden-Powell, then, there existed a possibility that that those
above in the hierarchy might have a questionable understanding of what
might be for the best in particular situation - but it is still the duty
of the scout to carry out their wishes. Michael Rosenthal (1986: 162) has
commented that the Scout Law and the overall direction of Scouting for
Boys provided scouting with 'a model of human excellence in which absolute
loyalty, an unbudgeable devotion to duty, and the readiness to fight, and
if necessary die for one's country, are the highest virtues'. Duty and
patriotism were certainly central to Robert Baden-Powell's vision - but
so was kindness to others. The Scout Laws also call upon Scouts to smile
and whistle, to be a friend to animals and to be courteous. What is less
clear is what happens when there is conflict between the different laws.
Citizenship, taking responsibility and participation
Keep before your mind in all your teaching that the whole ulterior
motive of this scheme is to form character in the boys - to make them manly,
good citizens.... Aim for making each individual into a useful member of
society, and the whole will automatically come on to a high standard. (Baden-Powell
1909: 361)
In Scouting for Boys we can see that Robert Baden-Powell's view
of character is wrapped up with notions of citizenship. He wanted to encourage
‘a spirit of manly self-reliance and of unselfishness – something of the
practical Christianity which (although they are Buddhists in theory) distinguishes
the Burmese in their daily life’ (Baden-Powell: 1909: 292). This particular
aspect of his vision was shared with a significant number of other workers
at the time. While Robert Baden-Powell's analysis of the social and moral
situation in Britain certainly diverged from the more progressive thinking
of Christian Socialists and many of the workers involved in the settlement
movement, there were important commonalities. For example, he was opposed
to extremes of wealth. In the first edition of Scouting for Boys
(part VI, page 339), Baden Powell wrote:
[W]e are all Socialists in that we want to
see the abolition of the existing brutal anachronism of war, and of extreme
poverty and misery shivering alongside of superabundant wealth, and so
on; but we do not quite agree as to how it is to be brought about. Some
of us are for pulling down the present social system, but the plans for
what is going to be erected in its place are very hazy. We have not all
got the patience to see that improvement is in reality gradually being
effected before our eyes.
This passage was to disappear in later versions of Scouting for Boys
(from
the third edition on), but it does establish that Robert Baden-Powell cannot
be categorized in some simple way as 'deeply conservative'. As Tim Jeal
(1989: 413) has argued, there was more of an emphasis on taking responsibility
and independent thinking than many commentators would allow. 'A boy', Robert
Baden-Powell once wrote, 'should take his own line rather than be carried
along by herd persuasion'. In his list of ingredients of 'character', he
places intelligence and individuality before loyalty and self-discipline
(Jeal 1989: 413).
One of the fascinating aspects of Robert Baden-Powell's scheme was his
emphasis upon the group and of the young leader. In his reflections on
the experimental camp at Brownsea Island he comments:
The troop of boys was divided up into 'Patrols' of five, the
senior boy in each being Patrol Leader. This organization was the secret
of our success. Each patrol leader was given full responsibility for the
behaviour of his patrol at all times, in camp and in the field. The patrol
was the unit for work or play, and each patrol was camped in a separate
spot. The boys were put 'on their honour' to carry out orders. Responsibility
and competitive rivalry were thus at once established and a food standard
of development was ensured throughout the troop from day to day. (Robert
Baden-Powell 1908: 344)
While not giving the degree of freedom, association,
and lightness of adult intervention that characterized Seton's
vision of woodcraft, Robert Baden-Powell did, nevertheless, capture
something. He connected with the way in which groups of boys often formed
'gangs' and then used that form as a way of creating an environment for
learning and activity.
The patrol
[F]irst and foremost: The Patrol is the character school for the individual.
To the Patrol Leader it gives practise in Responsibility and in the qualities
of Leadership. To the Scouts it gives subordination of self to the interests
of the whole, the elements of self-denial and self-control involved in
the team spirit of cooperation and good comradeship.
But to get first-class results from this system you have to give the
boy leaders real free-handed responsibility-if you only give partial responsibility
you will only get partial results. The main object is not so much saving
the Scoutmaster trouble as to give responsibility to the boy, since this
is the very best of all means for developing character.
The Scoutmaster who hopes for success must not only study what is written
about the Patrol System and its methods, but must put into practice the
suggestions he reads. It is the doing of things that is so important, and
only by constant trial can experience be gained by his Patrol Leaders and
Scouts. The more he gives them to do, the more will they respond, the more
strength and character will they achieve.
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As Robert Baden-Powell explained later, educators should ‘become the students,
and … study the marvellous boy-life which they are at present trying vainly
to curb and repress’. He went on ‘why push against the stream, when the
stream, after all, is running in the right direction?’ (Baden-Powell 1930:
40).
Harnessing the imagination: woodcraft and adventure
Robert Baden-Powell wanted children to be brought up ' as cheerfully and
as happily as possible’. He also wrote, ‘in this life one ought to take
as much pleasure as one possible... because if one is happy, one has it
in one’s power to make all those around happy’. (From a speech made in
1902 and reported in the Johannesburg Star July 10, 1902 - quoted
by Jeal 1989). One of the great innovations of Scouting was to harness
the imagination and desire on the part of many boys and girls for 'adventure'.
Boys are full or romance, and they love 'make believe' to a
greater extent than they like to show. All you have to do is to play up
to this and to give rein to your imagination to meet their requirements.
(Baden-Powell 1908: 356)
As we have seen, Robert Baden-Powell placed a special emphasis on adventure
- on encouraging young people to look to enlarge their experiences. What
had eluded him was a suitable framework to handle this and his other concerns
- although he worked at various ways of approaching a scheme. Ernest
Thompson Seton provided what he was looking for in his short book The
Birch Bark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians. Seton had sent Robert Baden-Powell
a copy of book in 1906 - and Baden-Powell was impressed by the scheme of
activities had designed around camp life. In Seton's plan groups of between
15-50 boys and young men were gathered together in a 'band' supervised
by a 'medicine man'. From this base various activities and adventures could
be undertaken - and the life and needs of the 'band' provided a useful
reference point and organizing idea. Two further elements also impressed
Robert Baden-Powell to 'borrow' them for his scheme. Seton had developed
a system of non-competitive badges linked to the various activities in
his programme. A similar range of badges with a non-competitive orientation
was adopted by Robert Baden-Powell. Another element of the Seton scheme
imported into Scouting was the use of a totem such as an animal or a bird
to identify each Scout patrol.
The scale of this importation (some of which was not initially acknowledged
properly) became the focus of considerable tension between Seton and Robert
Baden-Powell.
Seton grew increasingly aggrieved at the plaudits conferred
on Baden-Powell as the inventor of Scouting, a grievance obviously exacerbated
by the enormous popularity of Baden-Powell's movement as opposed to the
substantially more modest success of his own Woodcraft Indians.... His
resentment was nourished by a sense that Baden-Powell had betrayed the
purity of the woodcraft ideal, substituting for the true woodcraft way,
a narrowly self-serving military training that had nothing to do with real
character building. (Rosenthal 1986 70; 71)
Rosenthal argues that Robert Baden-Powell's encounter with Ernest Thompson
Seton was 'critical to the development of Scouting' and that his was 'the
vital influence who brought before Baden-Powell the model of an efficient,
attractive, self-contained system toward which he had been working for
two years' (ibid.: 80-81). The scale of the borrowing is disputed
by Jeal (1989: 378) but even Rosenthal concludes that the structure produced
by Seton's idealism was transformed by Baden-Powell. To this extent, Robert
Baden-Powell 'engaged in a genuinely original, creative act' (1986: 81).
Learning through doing
The key to successful education is not so much to teach
the pupil as to get him to learn for himself.
Dr Montessori has proved that by encouraging a child in its natural
desires, instead of instructing it in what you think it ought to do, you
can educate it on a far more solid and far-reaching basis. It is only tradition
and custom that ordain that education should be a labour. (Robert Baden-Powell
manuscript circa 1913-14) quoted by Jeal 1989: 413)
In the process of preparing Scouting for Boys, Robert Baden-Powell
read some quite diverse books and materials concerning the education of
young men. Michael Rosenthal (1986: 64) lists some of his influences
and they include: Epictetus, Livy, Pestalozzi,
and Jahn on physical culture. He had also explored different techniques
for educating boys within different African tribes, studied the Bushido
of the Japanese, and the educational methods of John
Pounds and the ragged schools (op. cit.). As we have already
seen, he also drew upon the work of contemporaries such as William
Smith, Ernest Thompson
Seton and Dan Beard. He came to appreciate the philosophy and methods
of Maria Montessori.
Be prepared
In his notes for instructors, Robert Baden-Powell discusses the need for
Scouters (as they were later to be known) to have the ability to 'read
character, and thereby to gain sympathy'. Robert Baden-Powell also stresses
'the value of patience and cheery good temper; the duty of giving up some
of one's time and pleasure for helping one's country and fellow-men; and
the inner meaning of out motto, "Be Prepared"' (1909: 295). He continues:
But as you come to teach these things you will very soon find
(unless you are a ready-made angel) that you are acquiring them yourself
all the time.
You must 'Be Prepared' yourself for disappointments at first, though
you will as often as not find them outweighed by unexpected successes.
You must from the first 'Be Prepared' for the prevailing want of concentration
of mind on the part of boys, and if you then frame your teaching accordingly,
I think you will have very few disappointments. Do not expect boys to pay
great attention to any one subject for very long until you have educated
them to do so. You must meet them half way, and not give them too long
a dose of one drink. A short, pleasing sip of one kind, and then off to
another, gradually lengthening the sips till they become steady draughts....
This making the mind amenable to the will is one of the important inner
points in our training.
For this reason it is well to think out beforehand each day what you
want to say on your subject, and then bring it out a bit at a time as opportunity
offers - at the camp fire, or in intervals of play and practice, not in
one long set address....
To get a hold on your boys you must be their friend; but don't
be in too great a hurry at first to gain this footing; until they have
got over their shyness of you.
Robert Baden-Powell (1909)
Scouting for Boys, pages 295 and 294
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There was a strong antipathy in some of Robert Baden-Powell's writing to
rote learning, the attempt to cram information into 'young heads' and abstract
ideas that were not tied to practical expression. As an educational approach
this element along with Robert Baden-Powell's concern with 'training for
active citizenship', his focus on character, 'the appreciation of beauty
in Nature', and service to others (Baden-Powell 1930) appealed strongly
to many progressive headmasters (like Cecil Reddie at Abbotsholme). Such
thinking also found its way into various experiments in education - such
as that undertaken by Leonard Elmhirst and Rabindranath Tagore in India.
One of the key concerns in that work was to utilize scouting and woodcraft
as a way of developing forms of schooling for village children that 'took
full account of their natural surroundings' (Stewart 1968: 129).
Conclusion: Robert Baden-Powell as an educator innovator
How are we to judge Robert Baden-Powell as an educator? While the 'faculty
psychology' on which he based significant elements of his scheme may be
discredited (Macleod 1983: 251) and his imperial vision of duty is distasteful
to many - there is still much to admire and acknowledge in Robert Baden-Powell's
work. He did look to the social lives and imagination of children and young
people. He placed a special value on adventure; on children and young people
working together - and taking responsibility (his 'patrol' building on
the idea of 'natural' friendship groups and 'gangs'); on developing self-sufficiency;
and on 'learning through doing'. It has been one of the ironies of youth
work over the last fifty years that while club and project workers may
talk of participation and question many of the methods of uniformed organizations,
one of the most sustained and widespread example of self-organization and
participation flows from Robert Baden-Powell's scheme set out in 1908.
It may well be that we need to look again at notions of character, virtue
and duty - to see how they may be reinterpreted for today's conditions
and within a more dialogical, just and convivial framework.
Further reading and references
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1899) Aids to Scouting for NCOs and Men,
London: . Robert Baden-Powell's first best seller - whose central message
was that military scouting bred self-reliance. This was achieved because
they had to use their intelligence and act on their own initiative. Scouts
frequently operated away from the guidance of officers.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1908) Scouting for Boys. A handbook for
instruction in good citizenship, London: Horace Cox. 398 pages. First
published in six fortnightly parts in 1908 (at 4d. per part) a combined
volume was quickly republished in the same year. A second edition appeared
in 1909 (Arthur Pearson, 310 pages) - and there have been various editions
since. The original bit part version was republished by the Scout Book
Club in 1938. The cover of Part One (see right) was by John Hassell and
as Tim Jeal has said, the implication was clear - this was an invitation
not to just read about adventures but to live them too. Its impact was
phenomenal - with four reprints in the first year and well over 60,000
copies sold in its second year. Part one dealt with scoutcraft and scout
law; part two with observation and tracking, woodcraft and knowledge of
animals. Part three looked at campaigning and camp life, pioneering and
resourcefulness; part four with endurance and health, chivalry and brave
deeds, discipline; part five with saving life and first-aid, patriotism
and loyalty. Finally, part six dealt with scouting games, competitions
and plays, plus words to instructors.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1922) Rovering to Success. A book of
life-sport for young men, London, Herbert Jenkins. 253 pages. Basically,
advice to young men on how to avoid pitfalls around gambling, drinking,
sexual temptation, (political) extremists and irreligion.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1929) Scouting and Youth Movements,
London, Ernest Benn.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1930) Aids to Scoutmastership: A Guidebook
For Scoutmasters On The Theory of Scout Training, London: Herbert Jenkins.
On-line version: http://old.jccc.net/~mbrownin/badenp/bp-aids.htm.
With chapters on the scoutmaster, the boy, scouting, character, health
and strength, handicraft and skill, and service to others, this book provides
a collection of thoughts and hints based on the experience of the scheme.
Jeal, T. (1989) Baden-Powell, London: Hutchinson. Brilliant,
balanced and extremely well researched biography.
Reynolds, E. E. (1942) Baden-Powell, London: Oxford University
Press. This is an 'official' reading - undertaken at the request of the
Scout Association. That said, it does contain a good deal of interesting
detail. Online at: http://www.pinetreeweb.com/bp-reynolds.htm
Rosenthal, M. (1986) The Character Factory. Baden-Powell and the
origins of the Boy Scout Movement, London: Collins. Controversial study
that dwells heavily on Baden-Powell's supposed racism, militarism and homosexuality
and on his ideas on 'character'. Well worth reading - especially alongside
Jeal (1989).
References
Baden-Powell, A. and Baden-Powell, Robert (1912) How Girls Can Help
Build Up the Empire, London.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1908) Scouting for Boys. A Handbook for
instruction in good citizenship, London, Horace Cox.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1909) Scouting for Boys. A handbook for
instruction in good citizenship. (rev. edn.), London, Pearson.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1916) The Wolf Cub's Handbook, London,
Pearson.
Baden-Powell, Robert S. S. (1941) B-P's Outlook. A selection of articles
for the Scouter, London, Pearson.
Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. (1990) Using Informal Education. An alternative
to casework, teaching and control?, Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (1999) Informal Education: Conversation,
democracy and learning, Ticknall: Education Now.
Kerr, R. (1932) The Story of the Girl Guides, London, Girl Guides
Association.
Macleod, D. I. (1983) Building Character in the American boy. The
Boy Scouts, YMCA and their forerunners, Madison: Wisconsin University
Press.
Springhall, J. (1977) Youth, Empire and Society. British youth movements
1883-1940, Beckenham: Croom Helm.
Stewart, W. A. C. (1968) The Educational Innovators. Volume II:
Progressive schools 1881-1967, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Links
Go no further than the truly excellent US site Pine
Tree Web. This is a comprehensive collection of material about
Scouting across the world and has extensive material on Baden-Powell.
For a listing of scouting material on this site, see: scouting
and guiding.
To cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1997;
2002) 'Robert Baden-Powell as an educational innovator', the encyclopedia
of informal education, www.infed.org/thinkers/et-bp.htm.
Last
update: July
10, 2005
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